Rethinking preclinical training: student collaboration, developing personal 3D-printed instrument analogues, and the smartphone.

Research and exploration continually yield advances in technology and approaches to education. There is often a crossover between these domains, giving rise to technology-enhanced learning. The traditional trainer-imparting-wisdom-to-trainee model is no longer considered a one-way discourse. Dundee School of Dentistry has been exploring novel methods of preclinical and clinical training for quite some time and this is clearly apparent in the 4D curriculum. Key technological areas that have rapidly evolved in the past decade holding tremendous educational potential include personal digital device functionality, along with 3D scanning and printing.This article details a trainee-trainer collaboration to update an existing 3D-printed training tool, simulating a handpiece to interface with capacitive screens.

A versatile 3D printed multi-electrode cell for determination of three COVID-19 biomarkers.

3D-printing has shown an outstanding performance for the production of versatile electrochemical devices. However, there is a lack of studies in the field of 3D-printed miniaturized settings for multiplex biosensing. In this work, we propose a fully 3D-printed micro-volume cell containing six working electrodes (WEs) that operates with 250 µL of sample. A polylactic acid/carbon black conductive filament (PLA/CB) was used to print the WEs and subsequently modified with graphene oxide (GO), to support protein binding. Cyclic voltammetry was employed to investigate the electrochemical behaviour of the novel multi-electrode cell. In the presence of K3[Fe(CN)6], PLA/CB/GO showed adequate peak resolution for subsequent label-free immunosensing. The innovative 3D-printed cell was applied for multiplex voltammetric detection of three COVID-19 biomarkers as a proof-of-concept. The multiple sensors showed a wide linear range with detection limits of 5, 1 and 1 pg mL-1 for N-protein, SRBD-protein, and anti-SRBD, respectively. The sensor performance enabled the selective sequential detection of N protein, SRBD protein, and anti-SRBD at biological levels in saliva and serum. In summary, the miniaturized six-electrode cell presents an alternative for the low-cost and fast production of customizable devices for multi-target sensing with promising application in the development of point-of-care sensors.

Three-Dimensional Bioprinting of an In Vitro Lung Model.

In December 2019, COVID-19 emerged in China, and in January 2020, the World Health Organization declared a state of international emergency. Within this context, there is a significant search for new drugs to fight the disease and a need for in vitro models for preclinical drug tests. This study aims to develop a 3D lung model. For the execution, Wharton's jelly mesenchymal stem cells (WJ-MSC) were isolated and characterized through flow cytometry and trilineage differentiation. For pulmonary differentiation, the cells were seeded in plates coated with natural functional biopolymer matrix as membrane until spheroid formation, and then the spheroids were cultured with differentiation inductors. The differentiated cells were characterized using immunocytochemistry and RT-PCR, confirming the presence of alveolar type I and II, ciliated, and goblet cells. Then, 3D bioprinting was performed with a sodium alginate and gelatin bioink in an extrusion-based 3D printer. The 3D structure was analyzed, confirming cell viability with a live/dead assay and the expression of lung markers with immunocytochemistry. The results showed that the differentiation of WJ-MSC into lung cells was successful, as well as the bioprinting of these cells in a 3D structure, a promising alternative for in vitro drug testing.

Contactless Remote 3D Splinting during COVID-19: Report of Two Patients.

We used calibrated 2D images uploaded by patients to an online platform to generate a 3D digital model of the limb. This was used to 3D print a splint. This method of 3D printing of splints was used for two patients who were not able to visit the hospital in person due to restrictions placed by the COVID-19 pandemic. Both patients were satisfied with the splint. We feel that this technology could be used to offer additional options to conventional splinting that allows contactless splint fitting. Level of Evidence: Level V (Therapeutic).

Microfluidic Organ-on-A-chip: A Guide to Biomaterial Choice and Fabrication.

Organ-on-A-chip (OoAC) devices are miniaturized, functional, in vitro constructs that aim to recapitulate the in vivo physiology of an organ using different cell types and extracellular matrix, while maintaining the chemical and mechanical properties of the surrounding microenvironments. From an end-point perspective, the success of a microfluidic OoAC relies mainly on the type of biomaterial and the fabrication strategy employed. Certain biomaterials, such as PDMS (polydimethylsiloxane), are preferred over others due to their ease of fabrication and proven success in modelling complex organ systems. However, the inherent nature of human microtissues to respond differently to surrounding stimulations has led to the combination of biomaterials ranging from simple PDMS chips to 3D-printed polymers coated with natural and synthetic materials, including hydrogels. In addition, recent advances in 3D printing and bioprinting techniques have led to the powerful combination of utilizing these materials to develop microfluidic OoAC devices. In this narrative review, we evaluate the different materials used to fabricate microfluidic OoAC devices while outlining their pros and cons in different organ systems. A note on combining the advances made in additive manufacturing (AM) techniques for the microfabrication of these complex systems is also discussed.

3D-printed capillaric ELISA-on-a-chip with aliquoting.

Sandwich immunoassays such as the enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) have been miniaturized and performed in a lab-on-a-chip format, but the execution of the multiple assay steps typically requires a computer or complex peripherals. Recently, an ELISA for detecting antibodies was encoded structurally in a chip thanks to the microfluidic chain reaction (Yafia et al. Nature, 2022, 605, 464-469), but the need for precise pipetting and intolerance to commonly used surfactant concentrations limit the potential for broader adoption. Here, we introduce the ELISA-on-a-chip with aliquoting functionality that simplifies chip loading and pipetting, accommodates higher surfactant concentrations, includes barrier channels that delay the contact between solutions and prevent undesired mixing, and that executed a quantitative, high-sensitivity assay for the SARS-CoV-2 nucleocapsid protein in 4×-diluted saliva. Upon loading the chip using disposable pipettes, capillary flow draws each reagent and the sample into a separate volumetric measuring reservoir for detection antibody (70 µL), enzyme conjugate (50 µL), substrate (80 µL), and sample (210 µL), and splits washing buffer into 4 different reservoirs of 40, 40, 60, and 20 µL. The excess volume is autonomously drained via a structurally encoded capillaric aliquoting circuit, creating aliquots with an accuracy of >93%. Next, the user click-connects the assay module, comprising a nitrocellulose membrane with immobilized capture antibodies and a capillary pump, to the chip which triggers the step-by-step, timed flow of all aliquoted solutions to complete the assay in 1.5 h. A colored precipitate forming a line on a nitrocellulose strip serves as an assay readout, and upon digitization, yielded a binding curve with a limit of detection of 54 and 91 pg mL-1 for buffer and diluted saliva respectively, vastly outperforming rapid tests. The ELISA chip is 3D-printed, modular, adaptable to other targets and assays, and could be used to automate ELISA in the lab; or as a diagnostic test at the point of care with the convenience and form factor of rapid tests while preserving the protocol and performance of central laboratory ELISA.

COVID-19 Detection Using a 3D-Printed Micropipette Tip and a Smartphone.

The COVID-19 pandemic has caused over 7 million deaths worldwide and over 1 million deaths in the US as of October 15, 2022. Virus testing lags behind the level or availability necessary for pandemic events like COVID-19, especially in resource-limited settings. Here, we report a low cost, mix-and-read COVID-19 assay using a synthetic SARS-CoV-2 sensor, imaged and processed using a smartphone. The assay was optimized for saliva and employs 3D-printed micropipette tips with a layer of monoclonal anti-SARS-CoV-2 inside the tip. A polymeric sensor for SARS-CoV-2 spike (S) protein (COVRs) synthesized as a thin film on silica nanoparticles provides 3,3',5-5'-tetramethylbenzidine responsive color detection using streptavidin-poly-horseradish peroxidase (ST-poly-HRP) with 400 HRP labels per molecule. COVRs were engineered with an NHS-PEG4-biotin coating to reduce nonspecific binding and provide affinity for ST-poly-HRP labels. COVRs binds to S-proteins with binding strengths and capacities much larger than salivary proteins in 10% artificial saliva-0.01%-Triton X-100 (as virus deactivator). A limit of detection (LOD) of 200 TCID50/mL (TCID50 = tissue culture infectious dose 50%) in artificial saliva was obtained using the Color Grab smartphone app and verified using ImageJ. Viral load values obtained in 10% pooled human saliva spiked with inactivated SARS-COV-2 virus gave excellent correlation with viral loads obtained from qPCR (p = 0.0003, r = 0.99).

A First Reported Adjustable Breast Volume Simulator for Teaching Oncoplastic Surgery Marking: Adjustable Breast Oncoplastic Surgery Simulator.

BACKGROUND: The current simulators for teaching oncoplastic surgery marking are available in a fixed size for each model. This is not an accurate reflection of the variety of patient's breast volumes in reality and may limit the teaching to certain techniques associated with the particular breast ptosis/size. DEVICE DESCRIPTION: This is the first reported simulator with varying breast volumes/ptosis in a single model for teaching oncoplastic surgery marking, known as Adjustable Breast Oncoplastic Surgery Simulator (ABOSS). Adjustable Breast Oncoplastic Surgery Simulator was created using 3D printing. PRELIMINARY RESULTS: Adjustable Breast Oncoplastic Surgery Simulator could simulate the breast in appearance and texture. It is inexpensive and allows the practice of various markings based on the different breast volumes/ptosis in a single model. It also allows for the practice of the marking needed in asymmetric breasts to correct the asymmetry. CURRENT STATUS: Plans for commercialisation were made.

Microfluidic bioprinting of tough hydrogel-based vascular conduits for functional blood vessels.

Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting of vascular tissues that are mechanically and functionally comparable to their native counterparts is an unmet challenge. Here, we developed a tough double-network hydrogel (bio)ink for microfluidic (bio)printing of mono- and dual-layered hollow conduits to recreate vein- and artery-like tissues, respectively. The tough hydrogel consisted of energy-dissipative ionically cross-linked alginate and elastic enzyme-cross-linked gelatin. The 3D bioprinted venous and arterial conduits exhibited key functionalities of respective vessels including relevant mechanical properties, perfusability, barrier performance, expressions of specific markers, and susceptibility to severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 pseudo-viral infection. Notably, the arterial conduits revealed physiological vasoconstriction and vasodilatation responses. We further explored the feasibility of these conduits for vascular anastomosis. Together, our study presents biofabrication of mechanically and functionally relevant vascular conduits, showcasing their potentials as vascular models for disease studies in vitro and as grafts for vascular surgeries in vivo, possibly serving broad biomedical applications in the future.

Ultrarapid and ultrasensitive detection of SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in COVID-19 patients via a 3D-printed nanomaterial-based biosensing platform.

Rapid detection of antibodies during infection and after vaccination is critical for the control of infectious outbreaks, understanding immune response, and evaluating vaccine efficacy. In this manuscript, we evaluate a simple ultrarapid test for SARS-CoV-2 antibodies in COVID-19 patients, which gives quantitative results (i.e., antibody concentration) in 10-12 s using a previously reported nanomaterial-based three-dimensional (3D)-printed biosensing platform. This platform consists of a micropillar array electrode fabricated via 3D printing of aerosolized gold nanoparticles and coated with nanoflakes of graphene and specific SARS-CoV-2 antigens, including spike S1, S1 receptor-binding domain (RBD) and nucleocapsid (N). The sensor works on the principle of electrochemical transduction, where the change of sensor impedance is realized by the interactions between the viral proteins attached to the sensor electrode surface and the antibodies. The three sensors were used to test samples from 17 COVID-19 patients and 3 patients without COVID-19. Unlike other serological tests, the 3D sensors quantitatively detected antibodies at a concentration as low as picomole within 10-12 s in human plasma samples. We found that the studied COVID-19 patients had higher concentrations of antibodies to spike proteins (RBD and S1) than to the N protein. These results demonstrate the enormous potential of the rapid antibody test platform for understanding patients' immunity, disease epidemiology and vaccine efficacy, and facilitating the control and prevention of infectious epidemics.

Effect of Hydrogel Contact Angle on Wall Thickness of Artificial Blood Vessel.

Vascular replacement is one of the most effective tools to solve cardiovascular diseases, but due to the limitations of autologous transplantation, size mismatch, etc., the blood vessels for replacement are often in short supply. The emergence of artificial blood vessels with 3D bioprinting has been expected to solve this problem. Blood vessel prosthesis plays an important role in the field of cardiovascular medical materials. However, a small-diameter blood vessel prosthesis (diameter < 6 mm) is still unable to achieve wide clinical application. In this paper, a response surface analysis was firstly utilized to obtain the relationship between the contact angle and the gelatin/sodium alginate mixed hydrogel solution at different temperatures and mass percentages. Then, the self-developed 3D bioprinter was used to obtain the optimal printing spacing under different conditions through row spacing, printing, and verifying the relationship between the contact angle and the printing thickness. Finally, the relationship between the blood vessel wall thickness and the contact angle was obtained by biofabrication with 3D bioprinting, which can also confirm the controllability of the vascular membrane thickness molding. It lays a foundation for the following study of the small caliber blood vessel printing molding experiment.

In-line miniature 3D-printed pressure-cycled ventilator maintains respiratory homeostasis in swine with induced acute pulmonary injury.

The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrated the need for inexpensive, easy-to-use, rapidly mass-produced resuscitation devices that could be quickly distributed in areas of critical need. In-line miniature ventilators based on principles of fluidics ventilate patients by automatically oscillating between forced inspiration and assisted expiration as airway pressure changes, requiring only a continuous supply of pressurized oxygen. Here, we designed three miniature ventilator models to operate in specific pressure ranges along a continuum of clinical lung injury (mild, moderate, and severe injury). Three-dimensional (3D)-printed prototype devices evaluated in a lung simulator generated airway pressures, tidal volumes, and minute ventilation within the targeted range for the state of lung disease each was designed to support. In testing in domestic swine before and after induction of pulmonary injury, the ventilators for mild and moderate injury met the design criteria when matched with the appropriate degree of lung injury. Although the ventilator for severe injury provided the specified design pressures, respiratory rate was elevated with reduced minute ventilation, a result of lung compliance below design parameters. Respiratory rate reflected how well each ventilator matched the injury state of the lungs and could guide selection of ventilator models in clinical use. This simple device could help mitigate shortages of conventional ventilators during pandemics and other disasters requiring rapid access to advanced airway management, or in transport applications for hands-free ventilation.

Biomaterials for Tissue Engineering Applications and Current Updates in the Field: A Comprehensive Review.

Tissue engineering has emerged as an interesting field nowadays; it focuses on accelerating the auto-healing mechanism of tissues rather than organ transplantation. It involves implanting an In Vitro cultured initiative tissue or a scaffold loaded with tissue regenerating ingredients at the damaged area. Both techniques are based on the use of biodegradable, biocompatible polymers as scaffolding materials which are either derived from natural (e.g. alginates, celluloses, and zein) or synthetic sources (e.g. PLGA, PCL, and PLA). This review discusses in detail the recent applications of different biomaterials in tissue engineering highlighting the targeted tissues besides the in vitro and in vivo key findings. As well, smart biomaterials (e.g. chitosan) are fascinating candidates in the field as they are capable of elucidating a chemical or physical transformation as response to external stimuli (e.g. temperature, pH, magnetic or electric fields). Recent trends in tissue engineering are summarized in this review highlighting the use of stem cells, 3D printing techniques, and the most recent 4D printing approach which relies on the use of smart biomaterials to produce a dynamic scaffold resembling the natural tissue. Furthermore, the application of advanced tissue engineering techniques provides hope for the researchers to recognize COVID-19/host interaction, also, it presents a promising solution to rejuvenate the destroyed lung tissues.

Comparative Experimental Investigation of Biodegradable Antimicrobial Polymer-Based Composite Produced by 3D Printing Technology Enriched with Metallic Particles.

Due to the prevailing existence of the COVID-19 pandemic, novel and practical strategies to combat pathogens are on the rise worldwide. It is estimated that, globally, around 10% of hospital patients will acquire at least one healthcare-associated infection. One of the novel strategies that has been developed is incorporating metallic particles into polymeric materials that neutralize infectious agents. Considering the broad-spectrum antimicrobial potency of some materials, the incorporation of metallic particles into the intended hybrid composite material could inherently add significant value to the final product. Therefore, this research aimed to investigate an antimicrobial polymeric PLA-based composite material enhanced with different microparticles (copper, aluminum, stainless steel, and bronze) for the antimicrobial properties of the hybrid composite. The prepared composite material samples produced with fused filament fabrication (FFF) 3D printing technology were tested for different time intervals to establish their antimicrobial activities. The results presented here depict that the sample prepared with 90% copper and 10% PLA showed the best antibacterial activity (99.5%) after just 20 min against different types of bacteria as compared to the other samples. The metallic-enriched PLA-based antibacterial sheets were remarkably effective against Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli; therefore, they can be a good candidate for future biomedical, food packaging, tissue engineering, prosthetic material, textile industry, and other science and technology applications. Thus, antimicrobial sheets made from PLA mixed with metallic particles offer sustainable solutions for a wide range of applications where touching surfaces is a big concern.

Allied Health Professionals' Views on the Use of 3D Food Printing to Improve the Mealtime Quality of Life for People With Dysphagia: Impact, Cost, Practicality, and Potential.

PURPOSE: Much is promised in relation to the use of three-dimensional (3D) food printing to create visually appealing texture-modified foods for people with dysphagia, but little is known of its feasibility. This study aimed to explore the perspective of allied health professionals on the feasibility of using 3D food printing to improve quality of life for people with dysphagia. METHOD: Fifteen allied health professionals engaged in one of four 2-hr online focus groups to discuss 3D food printing for people with dysphagia. They discussed the need to address the visual appeal of texture-modified foods and watched a video of 3D food printing to inform their discussions on its feasibility. Focus group data were transcribed verbatim, de-identified, and analyzed using thematic content analysis. Participants verified summaries of the researchers' interpretation of the themes in the data. RESULTS: Participants suggested that 3D food printing could improve the mealtime experience for people with dysphagia but noted several barriers to its feasibility, including the time and effort involved in printing the food and in cleaning the printer. They were not convinced that 3D-printed food held higher visual appeal or looked enough like the "real food" it represented. CONCLUSIONS: Allied health professionals considered that 3D food printing could benefit people with dysphagia by reducing the negative impacts of poorly presented texture-modified foods. However, they also considered that feasibility barriers could impede uptake and use of 3D food printers. Further research should consider the views of people with dysphagia and address barriers reported in this study.

Scalable Printing of Prussian Blue Analogue@Au Edge-Rich Microcubes as Flexible Biosensing Microchips Performing Ultrasensitive Sucrose Fermentation Monitoring.

Sucrose is one of the most applied carbon sources in the fermentation process, and it directly determines the microbial metabolism with its concentration fluctuation. Meanwhile, sucrose also plays a key role of a protective agent in the production of biological vaccines, especially in the new mRNA vaccines for curing COVID-19. However, rapid and precise detection of sucrose is always desired but unrealized in industrial fermentation and synthetic biology research. In order to address the above issue, we proposed an ultrasensitive biosensor microchip achieving accurate sucrose recognition within only 12 s, relying on the construction of a Prussian blue analogue@Au edge-rich (PBA@AuER) microarchitecture. This special geometric structure was formed through exactly inducing the oriented PBA crystallization toward a certain plane to create more regular and continuous edge features. This composite was further transformed to a screen-printed ink to directly and large-scale fabricate an enzymatic biosensor microchip showing ultrahigh sensitivity, a wide detection range, and a low detection limit to the accurate sucrose recognition. As confirmed in a real alcohol fermentation reaction, the as-prepared microchip enabled us to accurately detect the sucrose and glucose concentrations with outstanding reusability (more than 300 times) during the whole process through proposing a novel analytical strategy for the binary mixture substrate system.

A national pediatric otolaryngology fellowship virtual dissection course using 3D printed simulators.

OBJECTIVE: Our objective was to create and evaluate a novel virtual platform dissection course to complement pediatric otolaryngology fellowship training in the setting of the COVID-19 pandemic. METHODS: A four-station, four-simulator virtual course was delivered to pediatric otolaryngology fellows virtually using teleconferencing software. The four stations consisted of microtia ear carving, airway graft carving, cleft lip repair, and cleft palate repair. Fellows were asked to complete pre- and post-course surveys to evaluate their procedural confidence, expertise, and attitudes towards the course structure. RESULTS: Statistical analysis of pre-course survey data showed fellows agreed that simulators should play an important part in surgical training (4.59 (0.62)); would like more options for training with simulators (4.31 (0.88)); and would like the option of saving their simulators for later reference (4.41 (0.85)). Fellows found the surgical simulators used in the course to be valuable as potential training tools (3.96 (0.96)), as competency or evaluation tools (3.91 (0.98)), and as rehearsal tools (4.06 (0.93)). Analysis showed a statistically significant improvement in overall surgical confidence in performing all four procedures. CONCLUSION: This virtual surgical dissection course demonstrates 3D printed surgical simulators can be utilized to teach fellows advanced surgical techniques in a low-risk, virtual environment. Virtual platforms are a viable, highly-rated option for surgical training in the setting of restricted in-person meetings and as a mechanism to increase access for fellows by reducing costs and travel requirements during unrestricted periods.

Evaluations of 3D-Printed Surgical Mask Tension Release Bands for Common COVID-19 Use with Biomechanics, Sensor Array System, and Finite Element Analysis.

A mask is one of the most basic protections to prevent the transmission of COVID-19. Surgical mask tension release bands (SMTRBs) are commonly used to ease the pain caused by prolonged mask use. However, the structural strength of SMTRBs and the effect that wearing masks with SMTRBs has on the face are unclear. Thus, this study assessed the mechanics of seven different types of 3D-printed SMTRBs. In this study, a tensile testing machine, a sensor array system, and finite element analysis were used to evaluate the mechanisms of seven SMTRBs. The tensile testing machine was applied to measure the breaking strength, elongation, stiffness, and rupture of the band. The sensor array system was used to calculate the pressure on the face when the band was used together with the mask. Finite element analysis was applied to evaluate the level of stress on the SMTRB structure when each of the seven bands was subjected to external force. The results demonstrated that thick SMTRBs put more pressure on the face but had greater structural strength. The thinner bands did not break easily; however, the mask ear loops tended to slip off more often. In addition, the size of the band hook affected the magnitude of the external force. This study provides a biomechanical reference for the future design of SMTRBs.

Electrochemical Biosensor for SARS-CoV-2 cDNA Detection Using AuPs-Modified 3D-Printed Graphene Electrodes.

A low-cost and disposable graphene polylactic (G-PLA) 3D-printed electrode modified with gold particles (AuPs) was explored to detect the cDNA of SARS-CoV-2 and creatinine, a potential biomarker for COVID-19. For that, a simple, non-enzymatic electrochemical sensor, based on a Au-modified G-PLA platform was applied. The AuPs deposited on the electrode were involved in a complexation reaction with creatinine, resulting in a decrease in the analytical response, and thus providing a fast and simple electroanalytical device. Physicochemical characterizations were performed by SEM, EIS, FTIR, and cyclic voltammetry. Square wave voltammetry was employed for the creatinine detection, and the sensor presented a linear response with a detection limit of 0.016 mmol L-1. Finally, a biosensor for the detection of SARS-CoV-2 was developed based on the immobilization of a capture sequence of the viral cDNA upon the Au-modified 3D-printed electrode. The concentration, immobilization time, and hybridization time were evaluated in presence of the DNA target, resulting in a biosensor with rapid and low-cost analysis, capable of sensing the cDNA of the virus with a good limit of detection (0.30 µmol L-1), and high sensitivity (0.583 µA µmol-1 L). Reproducible results were obtained (RSD = 1.14%, n = 3), attesting to the potentiality of 3D-printed platforms for the production of biosensors.

3D-Printed Microfluidics Potential in Combating Future and Current Pandemics (COVID-19).

Coronavirus disease (COVID-19) emerged in China in December 2019. In March 2020, the WHO declared it a pandemic leading to worldwide lockdowns and travel restrictions. By May, it infected 4,789,205 and killed 318,789 people. This led to severe shortages in the medical sector besides devastating socio-economic effects. Many technologies such as artificial intelligence (AI), virtual reality (VR), microfluidics, 3D printing, and 3D scanning can step into contain the virus and hinder its extensive spread. This article aims to explore the potentials of 3D printing and microfluidic in accelerating the diagnosis and monitoring of the disease and fulfilling the shortages of personal protective equipment (PPE) and medical equipment. It highlights the main applications of 3D printers and microfluidics in providing PPE (masks, respirators, face shields, goggles, and isolation chambers/hoods), supportive care (respiratory equipment) and diagnostic supplies (sampling swabs & lab-on-chip) to ease the COVID-19 pressures. Also, the cost of such technology and regulation considerations are addressed. We conclude that 3D printing provided reusable and low-cost solutions to mitigate the shortages. However, safety, sterility, and compatibility with environmental protection standards need to be guaranteed through standardization and assessment by regulatory bodies. Finally, lessons learned from this pandemic can also help the world prepare for upcoming outbreaks.